The Embargo Act Failed Because

The diplomatic neutrality of the United States was tested during the Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815). The warring nations of Britain and France both imposed trade restrictions in club to weaken each other'due south economies. These restrictions as well disrupted American trade and threatened American neutrality. As fourth dimension went on, British harassment of American ships increased. Controversial measures included British impressment of American men and seizure of American appurtenances. Afterwards the Chesapeake Affair in June 1807, pitting the British warshipLeopard against the American frigateChesapeake, President Thomas Jefferson faced a conclusion regarding the situation at hand. Ultimately, he chose an economic selection to assert American rights: The Embargo Act of 1807. Anchor

Impressment

Although not restricted to the presidential administrations of Jefferson and James Madison, the on-going impressment of American sailors became a key upshot for the United states during the Napoleonic Wars. After witnessing the horrors of war with France, many British sailors deserted His Majesty'due south navy and enlisted in the American merchant marines. In order to call back the deserters, British "printing gangs" came aboard American ships. The British, yet, tended to take anyone who could pass as a British soldier – unless the sailor could prove his American citizenship. Approximately 1,000, out of the estimated 10,000 men taken from American ships, were proven to have British citizenship.^[1]

James Madison had summed up the contrasting points of view in an 1804 letter to James Monroe:

[W]e consider a neutral flag on the loftier seas every bit a safeguard to those sailing under it. Uk on the contrary asserts a right to search for and seize her own subjects; and under that encompass, as cannot simply happen, are often seized and taken off, citizens of the U.s.a. and citizens or subjects of other neutral countries, navigating the high seas, under the protection of the American flag.^[2]

In January 1806, President Jefferson delivered a message to Congress concerning impressment:

On the impressment of our Seamen, our remonstrances have never been intermitted. a hope existed, at one moment, of an arrangement which might accept been submitted to. but information technology soon passed away, & the practice, tho' relaxed at times in the afar seas, has been constantly pursued in those in our neighborhood.^[iii]

Jefferson's statements heightened anti-British sentiment among American citizens. Anchor

Non-Importation Act

On February 14, 1806, the United States Senate sent President Jefferson a resolution that read equally follows:

Resolved, That the capture and condemnation under the orders of the British authorities, and adjudications of their courts of Admiralty, of American vessels and their cargoes, on the pretext of their being employed in a merchandise with the enemies of Great U.k., prohibited in time of peace, is an unprovoked aggression upon the property of the citizens of these United States, a violation of their neutral rights, and an encroachment upon their national independence.^[iv]

With these considerations in mind, the U.s. Congress passed the Non-Importation Act on April xviii, 1806. The author of the resolution, Joseph A. Nicholson, a Congressman from Maryland, created a list of items the U.s.a. could produce at dwelling. The items on the list were those that Americans would no longer import from Keen Britain. As a whole, Jefferson was pleased with the issue.^[v] In a letter to Monroe, Jefferson said that the House of the Representatives had never been "more solidly united in doing what they believe to be the best for the public interest."^[6] The measures, however, were not enacted on the appointment originally intended, November 15, 1806. The date was postponed in guild to expect for the results of negotiations in U.k.. Anchor

Monroe-Pinkney Treaty

Before implementation of the Non-Importation Deed, James Monroe and William Pinkney were instructed past President Jefferson to negotiate with Bang-up Britain in hopes of peacefully catastrophe the harassment of American ships and seamen.^[seven] Afterward months of negotiations, a treaty was finalized in December 1806 and "defined neutral and belligerent rights in time of war and established terms of trade between the United States and the British Empire."^[viii] The treaty, nevertheless, did not include clauses concerning the impressment of American citizens. Jefferson and his directorate agreed before the treaty was received that if the treaty did not include clauses to finish the impressment of Americans, the President would not forward it to Congress for ratification. In a alphabetic character to Monroe, defending his actions, Jefferson wrote:

[West]e immediately stated in chat to the members of the legislature & others, that having by a alphabetic character recieved in January, percieved that our ministers might sign a treaty not providing satisfactorily against the impressment of our seamen, nosotros had, on the 3d. of Feb. informed you lot that should such an 1 could have been forwarded, it could not be ratified, & recommending therefore that you should resume negociations for inserting an article to that effect, that nosotros should hold the treaty in suspense until nosotros could learn from y'all, the result of our instructions which probably would not be till summer, & then make up one's mind on the question of calling the Senate.^[9]

Opponents of Jefferson later criticized his actions. An article in early on 1812 in the Alexandria Gazette stated, "... the rejection of that treaty, the responsibility of which human activity Mr. Jefferson has boldly taken to himself, has been the fruitful source of all the evils, which we have suffered from embargoes and non-importation acts, and may soon suffer from state of war."^[10] Anchor

The Chesapeake Affair

As fourth dimension went on, the tension between Uk and the The states grew. In February 1807, information technology was reported that three men aboard the H.M.S.Melampus escaped and joined the ranks of the U.S.S.Chesapeake. The British Quango asked for the render of the men, simply the request was denied. An investigation was called for by Secretarial assistant Madison and the Secretary of the Navy after reported that the three men in question were American citizens. Both John Strahan (or Stachan) and William Ware were from Maryland, while Daniel Martin was a resident of Massachusetts.^[11] According to the report, these 3 men had previously been impressed by the British, despite their American citizenship; therefore, they were not considered deserters. In the meantime, the British Vice Admiral, George Cranfield, issued an order to captains and commanders of all British ships along the American coast. The order stated that many British subjects had deserted and were now on board the U.S.Southward.Chesapeake. Therefore, if whatever transport should run across theChesapeake, the helm should be shown the order and the send should be searched for British deserters.

On board theChesapeake, Helm James Barron was preparing to sail to the Mediterranean. On June 22, 1807, the Chesapeake and the H.Thousand.S.Leopard crossed paths. The Chesapeake halted alongside the Leopard in order to allow the British messenger on board. The messenger recited the declaration given to him by his superiors. Captain Barron refused to allow the British to search his transport. The captain made information technology articulate that there were no such men aboard the transport. Soon after, theLeopard fired upon theChesapeake in retaliation. Approximately twenty minutes later, the American send surrendered to the British demands. On board theChesapeake, the British looked at the muster and took the three men in question off the send, besides as John Wilson (also known as Jenkin Ratford), who was a proven deserter. In addition to the iv men taken off the ship, three seamen were killed, 8 were seriously injured, and ten more than sustained non-life-threatening injuries.

American sovereignty had been conspicuously violated by the British. The men on board theLeopard had used force, fired upon the American flag, and destroyed American life and property. In his 7th annual message to Congress, President Jefferson stated that "these Aggravations necessarily lead to the policy either of never albeit an armed vessel into our harbours, or of Maintaining in every Harbour such an armed forcefulness as may constrain Obedience to the laws, & protect the lives and belongings of our Citizens against their armed guests."^[12]

The American public was outraged by the actions of Britain, and Jefferson and his cabinet now needed to find a reasonable response to British actions. As news spread regarding the incident, Jefferson noted that "this state has never been in such a state of excitement since the Battle of Lexington."^[xiii] In guild to immediately address the result, the Virginia militia was ordered to capture the British ship. After the ship was captured, equally a sign of proficient will, Jefferson allowed the British sailors to return to Britain and assembled his cabinet members in order to discuss the issue.^[14]

Jefferson, however, did non convene Congress. There were several reasons for this decision. Firstly, Jefferson wanted tempers to cool and to wait for a response and amends from the British government. Secondly, he wanted to provide aplenty fourth dimension for the military to fix in example of a possible armed conflict, and for ships exterior of American waters to return home. Finally, he did not wish to reconvene Congress because he feared information technology would automatically exist interpreted as a call to war.^[15] Jefferson later ordered the British ships to leave American waters, proverb, "if they come up ashore indeed, they must be captured, or destroyed if they cannot be captured, considering we hateful to enforce the Proclamation rigorously ...."^[16] Anchor

Embargo of 1807

Shortly after the Chesapeake Affair, Thomas Jefferson received a letter of the alphabet from his friend John Page in Richmond on July 12, 1807, quoting the many citizens who insisted that "... an immediate Embargo is necessary ... to retrieve our lost honour, & to bring the mad Rex to his senses."^[17] Although Jefferson was not fully opposed to an embargo, he wanted to let aplenty time for American naval ships to return stateside.

Impressment was continuing and the British showed no sign of wanting to amend relations between the two nations. When James Madison updated the Usa Congress on impressment statistics early in 1808, he reported, "From the returns in the role information technology would announced that 4228 American Seamen had been impressed into the British service since the offset of the War, and that 936 of this number had been discharged leaving in that service 3292."^[18]

On December fifteen, 1807, Jefferson called his cabinet members to discuss the next phase of reconciliation.^[19] Before long afterwards, the President received news from Europe that did not rule in favor of a settlement. In fact, England released a royal proclamation that promised more than impressments. In addition to this, Napoleon had the total intention of subjecting U.S. aircraft to the Berlin Decree, an act created in response to a British blockade on France.^[20] The situation in Europe showed no signs of improvement. The Jefferson administration needed to respond.

As December 1807 began, debate about an embargo was heating up in Congress. Two key figures against the measure were Massachusetts Governor James Sullivan and Secretary of the Treasury Albert Gallatin. Sullivan's constituents would be greatly affected past the measure as most of American commercial aircraft was based in his country. Secretary Gallatin, on the other mitt, faced the problem of enforcing the measure out.^[21] Gallatin suggested amending the present Non-Importation Human action instead of imposing a total embargo. In a letter to Jefferson, Gallatin argued, "In every point of view, privations, sufferings, acquirement, effect on the enemy, politics at home &c., I prefer war to a permanent embargo."^[22] Jefferson, withal, was unmoved by arguments confronting the embargo, and failed to see the benefits of a restrictive economic policy like the Non-Importation Human activity. He delivered the following remarks before Congress on December 17, 1807:

To the Senate & House of Representatives of the United States[:] The communications now made, shewing the smashing & increasing dangers with which our vessels, our seamen and merchandize are threatened, on the high seas & elsewhere, from the belligerent powers of Europe, and it beingness of the greatest importance to keep in safety these essential resources, I deem it my duty to recommend the bailiwick to the consideration of Congress, who will doubtless percieve all the advantage which may exist expected from an inhibition of the departure of our vessels from the ports of the The states. Their wisdom will also run into the necessity of making every preparation for whatever events may grow out of the nowadays crisis.^[23]

Iv days after the United states Congress passed the Embargo Act of 1807, making the Non-Importation Act obsolete.

Wanting to maintain peace for as long every bit possible, Jefferson supported the Embargo Human activity. Some changes to the human action were needed, however, and Congress addressed these changes past passing the "supplementary," "additional," and "enforcement" acts in 1807 and 1808.^[24] The supplementary human activity required "... bonds from vessels in the coastwise trade, and besides from those engaged in fishing and whaling." The additional act "tightened the organization by requiring bonds for strange vessels engaged in the coastal trade; and, what was more meaning, it forbade the exportation of goods of any sort by land too as by sea."^[25] Considering the embargo had prompted an increase in smuggling, the enforcement human activity immune port regime to seize cargoes if there was any suspicion of violation of the embargo, and the President himself was empowered to utilize the Army or the Navy for boosted enforcement. Anchor

Repeal of the Embargo Act

Although the embargo was successful in preventing state of war, its negative consequences forced President Jefferson and Congress to consider repealing the measure. The American economy was suffering and American public opinion turned against the embargo. Moreover, goods continued to accomplish Great Uk through illegal shipments and British trade was non suffering equally much as the framers of the embargo had intended.^[26] In that location was an initial effect on the price of goods in Britain, but the Britons rapidly adapted to the contradistinct prices, and supplemented their decreased North American merchandise with Due south American commerce.^[27] Items that could not be replaced through other trading partners were non goods that were vital to the survival of the country. The other country in question, French republic, nigh seemed to welcome the American embargo because it supported Napoleon's Continental System.^[28]

The House Foreign Affairs Commission, headed by George Washington Cabell from Tennessee, was in charge of writing a report giving an overview of the U.South. human relationship with Britain and France, as well as giving suggestions for policies, belatedly in 1808. The committee came up with three different resolutions. The first was to grant "partial repeal with submission." The second was to impose a not-importation act on French republic. The third was to begin military preparations. Jefferson left the decision up to Congress and urged Congressmen to honor the report given by Cabell'southward committee.^[29]

Subsequently a long-winded debate, the committee recommended that the best course of action was the substitution of the embargo with a renewed not-intercourse human action. Under the proposed act, all countries except Britain and France would exist removed from the embargo. At the same time, French and British ships would be banned from American waters.^[30]

Jefferson signed the Non-Intercourse Act on March 1, 1809, three days earlier he left office.^[31]

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Farther Sources

Writer and lecturer Jim Sofka looks at Jefferson'due south Embargo at 200, audio files of a November 27, 2007, talk at the Robert H. Smith International Center for Jefferson Studies.
Expect for further sources on Jefferson and the embargo in the Thomas Jefferson Portal.